Karl Marx, a German philosopher, is known as the founder of communism. He was deeply concerned about the problems and suffering of the working class. Throughout his life, he strongly criticized the capitalist class, which he believed was responsible for exploiting workers. His theory of class conflict emerged from his famous works:

1. The Communist Manifesto (1848)
2. Das Kapital (The Capital) (1867)

Marx’s theory of class conflict can be summarized as follows: Karl Marx believed that at every stage in history, society is divided into two main classes: one that owns and controls the means of production (such as land, factories, and machinery), and another class that does not own the means of production and relies solely on its labor. The dominant class (that owns and controls the means of production) always exploits the subordinate class that does not own the means of production and has only their labor to offer for production. This always results in a conflict between these two major competing economic interests or classes—one that owns the means of production and the other that does not own the means of production. History is simply a story of war between these two classes. Capitalist society (with two classes: the capitalists and the workers) would be the last stage of this class conflict because the working class will revolt against the capitalist class, which will result in the formation of a classless society – a society that will be free from inequality and exploitation.

Marx’s theory of class conflict can be understood through the following key themes:

• Background
• Transformation of Capitalist Society into a Classless Society:

1. Capitalist Society and the Definition of Class
2. Exploitation of Workers by Capitalists
3. Pauperization of Workers
4. Alienation of Workers
5. Class Consciousness and Polarization of Capitalist Society
6. Revolution Against the Capitalist System
7. Formation of a Classless Society
8. Transition from Socialism to Communism

All human beings have basic needs such as food, shelter, and clothing. To fulfil these needs, people engage in various activities. This creates a system of people serving the economic needs of one another, which represents the economic structure of society. Marx looks at its broader picture and argues that the economic structure of society is based on two factors:

1. Means of production (e.g., tools, machinery, land, infrastructure, etc.)
2. Relations of production

Means of production refer to tools, machinery, land, and other types of equipment used to transform raw materials into finished goods. Relations of production refer to the relationship people have with the production process, especially in terms of ownership and the share they receive from what is produced. In simple terms, it explains how much benefit or profit a person gets from production.

Based on these, Marx said that every society is divided into two main groups:

• The rich and the poor
• The “haves” and the “have-nots”
• The ruling class and the working class

He explained this idea by looking at different stages of history:

• Primitive Society: People had no sense of accumulating wealth. There was no private property, and therefore production was collectively owned by the community. Everyone had equal access to production. Marx called this a primitive communist society.
• Ancient Society: Society was divided into masters and slaves. Masters owned everything and took most of the benefits, while slaves received only enough to survive.
• Feudal Society: There were landowners and serfs (peasants). Landowners owned the land, and serfs worked on it. Most of the production went to the landowners, and serfs got very little.
• Capitalist Society: There are capitalists and workers. Capitalists own factories and machines, while workers sell their labor. Workers are exploited by the capitalists, who pocket the revenue and pay workers only enough to survive.

Marx believed that there is one common characteristic in all these stages: the exploitation of one group by another. This exploitation created conflict between classes and thus resulted in the transition from one stage to another (e.g., from ancient society to feudal society). At every stage, conflict between groups led to the emergence of a new stage when the existing stage could no longer serve their interests. History, therefore, represents the story of class conflict and the resulting changes from one stage to the next. However, Marx believed that capitalist society would be the final stage of class conflict, as it would eventually be transformed into a classless, communist society.

Dialectical Materialism

Marx supported his theory using the idea of Dialectical Materialism, which he developed from Dialectical Idealism by the German philosopher Hegel. Dialectic literally means the debate of contradictory ideas or the confrontation of contradictory forces. Hegel believed that at every stage in history an idea emerged (thesis), which was challenged by another idea (antithesis), which led to the production of a new and different idea (synthesis). This synthesis later served as a “thesis” and was again challenged by another “antithesis,” leading to the production of another “synthesis.” Hegel believed that since ideas emerge from the minds of people, they determine the social existence of man. Therefore, in this way, the war of ideas moved the wheel of history, as new syntheses formed from time to time, determining social existence.

However, Marx disagreed and said that material conditions (economic factors) are more important than ideas thus used the Hegelian concept in his own style as Dialectical Materialism. Marx believed that forces of material production emerge as thesis and antithesis and lead to the formation of a new force of production (synthesis). He simply meant that at every stage in society, the class who owned the means of production emerged as thesis and the other class who did not own the means of production emerged as antithesis. These two classes (acting as thesis and antithesis) confronted each other leading the formation of a synthesis – a new economic order. Marx believed that in this way, material forces move on the wheel of history from one economic order to another and would finally reach a classless society—where there will be no conflict. Marx called it Dialectical Materialism (instead of Dialectical Idealism as used by Hegel) because it was based on the materialistic interpretation of history. He believed that economic factors – rather than ideas – are the true determinants of social existence. His such perspective is called Economic Determinism.

1. Capitalist Society and Definition of Class

Marx was born Germany in 1818. It was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, when agrarian and rural societies in Europe and America began transitioning into industrial and urban societies. This transformation led to the emergence of capitalist society. Throughout his life, Marx closely observed the conditions of factory workers, and his theory of class conflict largely focused on the tensions between factory owners and workers.

Marx defined a class as a group of people who share common relations to the means of production. He believed that those who own the means of production constitute one class, and those who do not own the means of production constitute another class (but have only their labor to offer in the production process). Those who own and control the means of production (e.g., owners of slaves, feudal lords, and factory owners) form the dominant class. Those who do not own the means of production (e.g., slaves, peasants or serfs, and factory workers) form the subordinate class.

Marx argued that in capitalist society, the two major classes are the capitalist class (factory owners) and the working class. He used the term bourgeoisie for those who own the means of production—the dominant class—and the term proletariat for those who do not own the means of production—the subordinate class.

2. Exploitation of Workers by Capitalists

Marx emphasized that the relationship between these two classes is not only one of dominance and subordination but also of exploitation. Workers produce more wealth in the form of goods and services than is necessary to meet their basic needs. In other words, they generate surplus wealth but do not benefit from it. Those who own the means of production are able to get this surplus wealth for their own use. The wages workers receive are less than the value of the labor they contribute. This exploitation generates tension and dissatisfaction, serving as the primary source of class conflict.

Marx further argued that the economic structure of society shapes other social institutions, including law, religion, education, and government. The dominant economic position of capitalists enables them to influence and control these institutions to protect their interests. Ownership of the means of production grants political power, either through direct participation in the political system or by indirectly controlling it. Consequently, political and legal institutions reflect the interests of the capitalist class. Marx described this as the organized power of the capitalist class used to oppress the working class. He considered the state a tool of the dominant class, an instrument of violence and exploitation that serves the interests of capitalists

3. Pauperization of Workers

Marx argued that because capitalists get surplus wealth while workers receive only what is necessary for survival, capitalists become progressively richer, while workers become increasingly impoverished. He referred to this process as pauperization, describing how exploitation intensifies the poverty of workers over time.

4. Alienation of Workers

This process also leads to alienation among workers. Alienation refers to a sense of powerlessness, isolation, and a lack of meaning experienced when individuals face oppressive circumstances and have no control over their work. Under capitalism, workers are alienated because they derive neither satisfaction from their labor nor the full product of their work. They perceive themselves as mere cogs in a machine.

5. Class Consciousness and Polarization of Capitalist Society

Alienation and dissatisfaction contribute to the polarization of society into two distinct classes: the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the proletariat (working class). Workers begin to recognize themselves as a separate class, distinct from the capitalist class. Marx termed this awareness class consciousness. As workers develop class consciousness, their solidarity strengthens.

6. Revolution Against the Capitalist System

Class consciousness and solidarity enable workers to form unions and unite against capitalists, often through protests and collective action. This marks the beginning of the class struggle. When this struggle reaches its peak, a violent revolution may occur, overthrowing the capitalist structure. Such a revolution is most likely during periods of severe economic crisis when no other solutions are viable.

Marx called on workers to unite against exploitation, famously stating: “Workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to lose but your chains; you have a world to win.”

He believed that this revolution was inevitable because growing poverty and exploitation would ultimately drive the working class to rise up, leading to the end of capitalist society.

7. Formation of a Classless Society

Following the revolution, capitalists would lose their power and be reduced to the status of proletarians. This would result in the establishment of a classless society. In such a society, social classes and associated conflicts would disappear. The means of production would be publicly rather than privately owned, and resources would be collectively shared. Everyone would have equal access to the products of labor, creating a society free from exploitation, oppression, and inequality.

8. Transformation of Socialism into Communism

Marx believed that the transformation of capitalist society into a fully classless society would occur in two phases. In the first phase, the proletariat would seize and centralize all means of production and distribution. Labor would be compensated according to the amount of work performed. This stage represents socialism, where everyone contributes according to their ability and receives payment proportional to their labor.

The ultimate goal of the revolution, however, is the establishment of communism, a society in which everyone participates in labor according to their ability and receives according to their needs—creating a society based on economic justice. In this second phase, the needs of all members would be met, ensuring socio-economic equality and protecting the interests of the working class.

In a classless society, all major industries, commercial establishments, banks, transport, and communication systems would be collectively owned, and profits would be shared among all members. Increases in production or wealth would benefit everyone rather than creating inequality. Medical, educational, banking, transport, and other essential services would be equally accessible to all. Landed property would belong to society, and cultivation would be carried out cooperatively, guided by the principle of service rather than profit-making.

According to Marx, the state has no place in such a society because it functions as an instrument of exploitation under capitalism, either serving the dominant class or acting as a tool for class oppression. In a classless society, the state becomes unnecessary. Social order and harmony would be maintained through voluntary associations, which would protect the rights and freedoms of citizens.

Marx viewed communism as the most advanced and sophisticated form of a classless society, where equality, justice, and collective well-being are fully realized.